Thanks to 3D-printed alternatives, things are getting better for living test objects.
Animals, too, could soon be spared chemical testing thanks to the work of an Edinburgh-based research team.
Using a 3D printer, the team created a model comprising five interconnected compartments and filled each of those with human cells from the brain, heart, lungs, liver and kidney respectively.
Drugs administered were absorbed naturally by the artificial organs. The team made this possible by using mathematical calculations to imitate the journey medication takes in a human body.
The model could be extended to encompass the stomach and skin or even test food and fine particles.
Others are already testing the latter on human lung models.
